Abstract
Energy balance is a complex trait with relevance to the study of human obesity and maintenance energy requirements of livestock. The objective of this study was to identify, using unique mouse models, quantitative trait loci (QTL) influencing traits that contribute to variation in energy balance. Two F2 resource populations were created from lines of mice differing in heat loss measured by direct calorimetry as an indicator of energy expenditure. The HB F2 resource population originated from a cross between a noninbred line selected for high heat loss and an inbred line with low heat loss. Evidence for significant QTL influencing heat loss was found on chromosomes 1, 2, 3, and 7. Significant QTL influencing body weight and percentage gonadal fat, brown fat, liver, and heart were also identified. The LH F2 resource population originated from noninbred lines of mice that had undergone divergent selection for heat loss. Chromosomes 1 and 3 were evaluated. The QTL for heat loss identified on chromosome 1 in the HB population was confirmed in the LH population, although the effect was smaller. The presence of a QTL influencing 6-wk weight was also confirmed. Suggestive evidence for additional QTL influencing heat loss, percentage subcutaneous fat, and percentage heart was found for chromosome 1.
ENERGY balance, or the difference between energy intake and energy expenditure, is a complex trait with important implications for human health and live-stock production. Energy imbalance resulting in weight gain, and potentially leading to obesity, results when energy intake is greater than energy expenditure. The identification of low resting metabolic rate or total energy expenditure as risk factors for weight gain in certain human populations (Ravussinet al. 1988; Robertset al. 1988; Griffithset al. 1990) has led to the hypothesis that low energy expenditure provides a mechanism by which people susceptible to obesity can make excess energy available for weight gain (Saltzman and Roberts 1995). In contrast to the situation in humans in which low energy expenditure may be undesirable because of its potential contribution to unwanted weight gain and obesity, low energy expenditure and thus low maintenance energy requirements in livestock may be desirable to minimize the cost of feed required to maintain mature animals.
The genetic regulation of energy expenditure has been studied in mice through divergent selection for heat loss, which is measured using individual-animal direct calorimeters (Nielsenet al. 1997a). Because energy expenditure must equal energy intake at maintenance, and because energy is expended primarily as heat, heat loss was measured in mature mice as an indicator of energy expenditure and maintenance energy requirements. After 15 generations of selection, the difference in heat loss between lines selected in the high (MH) and low (ML) directions was 53% relative to the control line mean. The MH mice consumed significantly more feed, were leaner, more active, and had larger litters compared to ML mice (Moodyet al. 1997; Nielsen et al. 1997a,b; Mousel 1998). These results demonstrate that the regulation of heat loss has a significant genetic component, and that selection for heat loss successfully changed energy expenditure as well as other traits related to energy balance. In particular, decreased fatness of MH relative to ML mice despite increased feed intake makes them a unique model with which to study correlations among fat deposition, feed intake, and energy expenditure (see Pomp and Nielsen 1999).
Although several studies have identified quantitative trait loci (QTL) contributing to energy imbalance measured as adiposity (see Pomp 1997), few have focused on component characteristics of energy balance, such as energy intake or energy expenditure. Because of the divergence in heat loss generated through selection, the MH and ML lines provide a valuable genetic resource with which to pursue such QTL. However, because the selection lines are outbred lines that originated from a common base population, they are likely to share common alleles at many molecular markers, which would make standard methods of QTL analysis for inbred lines inappropriate (Lander and Botstein 1989; Zeng 1993). Many inbred lines with variable phenotypes are readily available, so that a resource population created from a cross between a selection and an inbred line with significantly different heat loss would allow QTL to be identified by using fully informative markers and statistical methods developed for inbred lines.
In a previous study, Moody et al. (1997) compared traits related to energy balance among three inbred lines and the heat loss selection lines of mice. The greatest difference in heat loss between an inbred and selection line was found between MH and the inbred line C57BL/6J (BL). Average heat loss and feed intake of BL mice were similar to ML, but their body composition was similar to MH. Thus, even though BL and ML lines have similarly low heat loss, this phenotype may arise from different mechanisms. In the ML line, the mechanism leading to low heat loss may also facilitate deposition of excess energy as fat, whereas low heat loss in the BL line may not result in increased fat deposition. Thus, it was hypothesized that some QTL alleles responsible for low heat loss would be shared between BL and ML, while others influencing both heat loss and fat deposition would be unique within each of the two lines. The present study has identified QTL that influence heat loss and other phenotypes related to energy balance in two resource populations. A complete genome scan was conducted in a cross between MH and BL. Regions harboring QTL with the greatest effects were then evaluated in a cross between MH and ML.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Resource populations: Two different resource populations were created to utilize the resources available from diverse selection and inbred lines of mice. Detailed descriptions of the MH and ML lines divergently selected for heat loss have been presented elsewhere (Nielsen et al. 1997a,b). Briefly, selection was initiated from a composite base population created from four outbred strains of mice including NIH and ICR acquired from Harlan Sprague Dawley and CF-1 and CFW acquired from Charles River (Joneset al. 1992). Selection was based on measurement of heat loss (kcal/kg0.75/day) in 9- to 11-wk males using individual-animal direct calorimeters. Following 16 generations of selection, the lines were maintained by random mating with care taken to minimize inbreeding. The cumulative realized selection differentials for generation 15 were 136.9 and -106.6 kcal/kg0.75/day for MH and ML selection, respectively. Realized heritability for heat loss was 0.28 based on divergence of MH and ML. The first resource population (HB; n = 560) was created from a cross between the MH selection line and the BL inbred line. Average heat loss and food intake were similar for BL and ML and significantly less than for MH (Moodyet al. 1997). A second F2 intercross population (LH; n = 560) was created from a cross between the MH and ML lines. (See Table 1 for phenotypic means of BL, MH, and ML lines). All MH and ML mice used in this study were sampled from the first of three replicated selection lines.
Each resource population was produced across four time periods separated by 4 wk. Matings in periods 1 and 2 were repeated in periods 3 and 4 such that each mating produced ∼16 full-sibs in two time periods. BL males (n = 5) and MH females (n = 15) were mated to produce F1 progeny, and male (n = 22) and female (n = 36) F1 progeny were crossed to produce the HB resource population (n = 560). Similarly, males (n = 12) and females (n = 12) representing the MH and ML lines produced an F1 generation, and F1 males (n = 22) and females (n = 37) were crossed to produce the LH resource population (n = 560). All litters were standardized to eight pups at birth when possible. Pups were weaned at 3 wk and housed 3-4 per cage with ad libitum access to feed (Teklad 8604 Rodent Chow) and water until energy balance phenotypic measurement began at 10-12 wk. All mice were housed in stainless steel cages with wood-chip bedding and maintained at 22°, 35-50% relative humidity, and a light:dark cycle of 12:12 hr beginning at 0700 hr.
Measurement of phenotypes: Body weights were measured at 3, 6, and 10 wk. Direct calorimeters were used to measure heat loss at 10-12 wk of age as previously described (Nielsenet al. 1997a). Mice were placed into 1 of 10 individual-animal calorimetry units (Thermonetics Corporation, San Diego, CA) with a 3.5-g pellet of food at ∼1630 hr. After a 30-min acclimation period, heat loss was measured every minute for a continuous 15-hr period. The average heat loss was adjusted for metabolic body weight and expressed on a 24-hr basis (kcal/kg0.75/ day). Data were discarded for mice that failed to consume at least 2.5 g of the food pellet because of a reduction in heat loss (n = 16 and 11 mice in the HB and LH populations, respectively). Following heat loss measurement, mice were housed in individual cages with hanging wire feeders. Food intake was measured by difference over a 14-day period, adjusted for metabolic body size, and expressed on a 24-hr basis (g/kg0.75/day). Data were discarded for mice with significant food spillage (15 and 2 mice in the HB and LH populations, respectively). Otherwise, spillage was minimal and assumed to be randomly distributed. Body weights were measured and mice were killed 1 to 3 days after the food intake measurement period. Subcutaneous, gonadal (epididymal or perimetrial pads of males and females, respectively), and brown adipose pads, livers, and hearts were dissected and weighed. All adipose and organ weights were expressed as a percentage of body weight. The percentages of combined subcutaneous and gonadal fat pads were also evaluated as an indicator of total body fatness. All phenotypes were also measured on mice (n = 20 males and 20 females) representing each parental line (ML, MH, and BL) and F1 generation (MH × ML [n = 70] and MH × BL [n = 40]).
Genetic Analysis
Genotyping of HB population: Standard methods were used to extract DNA from tail clips. Fully informative markers were identified by screening microsatellite markers (MapPairs; Research Genetics, Huntsville, AL) in grandparents of the HB population to identify markers with different alleles in the MH compared to BL line. Genotypes were determined by standard PCR and agarose gel electrophoresis protocols. Genotypes were scored as B, M, or H representing BL allele homozygotes, MH allele homozygotes, or heterozygotes, respectively. Genotypes were scored twice and discrepancies between the two scores were rectified.
Genotyping of the HB population was completed in three phases. In phase 1, mice with the highest and lowest heat loss within each full-sib family were selected after adjusting for effects of sex and period. Additional mice were selected until a total of 46 for each criterion (high or low heat loss) was identified with approximately equal representation of each time period and sex. This selected group was genotyped for a total of 62 markers representing each chromosome at 20-to 40-cM spacing. In phase 2, the complete HB population was genotyped for 19 markers identified in phase 1 as having potential linkage to QTL influencing heat loss (see Statistical Analysis section). Phase 3 involved genotyping the complete HB population for additional markers located on chromosomes harboring markers identified in phase 2 as having significant effects on heat loss (see Statistical Analysis section).
Genotyping of LH population: Genotypes were determined by standard PCR using an infrared fluorescent dye-labeled forward primer followed by electrophoresis and analysis on the Li-Cor (Lincoln, NE) Model 4200 IR2 system. Two reactions using primers with different labels (IRD700 and IRD800) were combined after PCR. Gels were analyzed using Gene ImagIR analysis software (Li-Cor) to determine allele sizes of each individual. The LH population was evaluated for chromosomes 1 and 3, which contained QTL having the largest effects on heat loss in the HB population. Markers on these chromosomes were screened in MH and ML grandparents of the LH population and selected if more than one allele was found. A total of eight and six markers on chromosomes 1 and 3, respectively, were genotyped in all MH and ML grandparents, F1 parents, and LH F2 mice.
Statistical Analysis
Description of phenotypes: The means and standard deviations of traits were determined for the HB and LH populations, as well as for mice representing each parental and F1 line. Phenotypic differences among MH, ML, BL, and both F1 populations were evaluated using the generalized least-squares procedure of SAS (1988) with fixed effects of line, sex, and line-by-sex interaction. Significant line effects were further evaluated by defining contrasts to test differences between MH and ML, MH and BL, and between each F1 population and the average of its two parental lines.
HB population: Genetic distances between markers were determined using the Mapmaker 3.0 (Lincolnet al. 1992) analysis program with distances reported in Haldane centimorgan units.
Analysis of phase 1 and phase 2 genotypes: In phase 1, genotypic frequencies of selectively genotyped mice were evaluated using a chi-square analysis to test for equal allelic frequencies between high and low selected groups, which is expected under the null hypothesis of no linked QTL. Markers with a chisquare test statistic >2.71 (P < 0.1; 1 d.f.) were identified for further evaluation by whole-population genotyping. In phase 2, the effect of marker genotype on heat loss phenotype was evaluated by analysis of variance using the PROC MIXED procedure of SAS (1988). Fixed effects included time period, sex, marker genotype, and genotype-by-sex interaction, with sire-dam included as a random effect to account for effects that may be attributed to the genetic background of a specific sire and dam combination. Eight chromosomes with markers having nominally significant (P < 0.05) effects on heat loss were identified for evaluation by interval analysis in phase 3.
Interval analysis of phase 3 genotypes: Interval analysis (Lander and Botstein 1989) was used to better define the location and effects of QTL influencing all traits for the eight chromosomes identified in phase 2. Given the assumption that the MH and BL lines were fixed for alternate QTL alleles (Q and q) and the effects of QQ, Qq, and qq are a, d, and -a, respectively (Falconer and Mackay 1996), the expected value of an F2 individual may be described in terms of a and d,
Analysis programs were developed to calculate the cai and cdi coefficients at 2-cM intervals on the basis of genotypes and locations of flanking markers (see Haley and Knott 1992), and the maximum-likelihood estimate for the residual variance for Equation 2 was obtained. The difference between the resulting -2 log-likelihoods of the full model (Equation 2, including a and d) and the reduced model (ignoring a and d) provided a likelihood-ratio test statistic (LR) that was converted to a LOD score (LOD = LR/4.601) for each 2-cM interval.
Fixed effects of sex, time period, and sire-dam were included for all traits. Litter size was also included as a fixed effect for 3- and 6-wk weights and percentage liver. Sex was accounted for as a fixed effect because no line-by-sex interaction was found when phenotypes of the MH, ML, and BL lines were compared for these traits (Moodyet al. 1997) and because no marker by sex interaction was found for heat loss in the analysis of variance completed for phase 2. Conditioning markers were selected for each trait in a two-step process using the backward selection option of the PROC REG procedure of SAS (1988). In the first step, models including all markers on a single chromosome were evaluated. Markers remained in the model if their effect approached significance (P < 0.1). In the second step, markers identified from all chromosomes in the first step were included in a single model. Conditioning markers included in the QTL analysis were those that remained in the final regression model (P < 0.05). Conditioning markers were omitted from analyses of chromosomes on which they were located.
Effects of QTL: Effects of QTL are presented as the additional percentage of residual phenotypic variance explained by the QTL and the a and d effects of each QTL. The percentage variance was calculated as [(residual variance of reduced model - residual variance of full model)/residual variance of reduced model] × 100. Solutions and standard errors for a and d were obtained using option 4 of the MTDFREML programs (Boldmanet al. 1995) with cai and cdi at the QTL location determined by the peak LOD score included in the model as covariates along with the same fixed effects and conditioning markers used in the interval analysis. Standard errors were calculated using the REML estimate of residual variance.
Confidence regions: One-LOD confidence regions are presented for significant QTL as the chromosomal region with LOD scores greater than or equal to one less than the peak LOD score at the QTL position.
Significance thresholds: Permutation testing described by Churchill and Doerge (1994) was used to determine empirically derived significance thresholds specific to the HB data. Permuted heat loss data were analyzed 1000 times with fixed effects and conditioning marker genotypes permuted along with associated phenotypes such that these effects were accounted for with each permutation. The maximum LOD for each chromosome, as well as the maximum across all chromosomes, was identified for each permuted analysis. The experiment-wise significance threshold level was defined as the 50th highest LOD among the 1000 maxima identified across all chromosomes, corresponding to an experiment-wise type 1 error rate of 0.05. Suggestive linkage threshold values were defined for each chromosome as the 50th highest LOD among the 1000 maxima for the respective chromosome.
Sex-adjusted means and phenotypic standard deviations for parental (BL, MH, and ML) and F1 (BL/MH and ML/MH) populations for heat loss (kcal/kg0.75/day), food intake (g food/kg0.75/day), percentage subcutaneous, gonadal and brown fat pads, percentage liver and heart, and 10-wk weight
LH population: Linkage maps for chromosomes 1 and 3 were constructed using Cri-map (Green and Crooks 1990) with results reported in Haldane centimorgan units. Interval analysis in the LH population was completed as described for the HB population, except that cai and cdi were calculated for 1-cM intervals conditional on genotypes in the three-generation pedigree for all markers in a linkage group (Haleyet al. 1994). This method allows all available information to be used to calculate the probability of a QTL genotype at a given location. Fixed effects were the same as for the HB population, but no conditioning markers were included in the analysis of the LH population.
Because only specific regions of chromosomes 1 and 3 were evaluated in the LH population to test for the presence of significant QTL identified from the HB population, the problem of multiple testing was reduced. Significance of QTL in these specific regions (20-30 cM) was determined by P < 0.01 as suggested by Lander and Kruglyak (1995). However, because no previous evidence for QTL in other regions of these chromosomes exists, identification of QTL in these regions was handled as if they were evaluated as part of a complete genome scan. Permutation testing was carried out as described for the HB population to determine suggestive linkage threshold levels. Because only two chromosomes were genotyped, permutation testing could not be used to determine genome-wide significant threshold levels.
RESULTS
Description of phenotypes: The mean and standard deviation for each trait in the original BL, MH, and ML lines, as well as in the F1 crosses, are shown in Table 1. The mean of the MH line was significantly greater than that of BL and ML for heat loss and food intake. Means of traits related to adiposity were greater in ML than in MH but similar in BL and MH. Body weight of MH was significantly greater than that of BL but similar to that of ML. Heterosis for heat loss was observed as the mean of both F1 populations was less than the average of their two parental lines. The BL/MH F1 mean was similar to the average of BL and MH for the remaining traits, except for brown adipose, liver, and 10-wk weights where the F1 mean exceeded the mean of either of its parental lines. In contrast, mean of the ML/MH F1 was different from the average of ML and MH for all traits except food intake. The ML/MH F1 mice were significantly larger and had greater subcutaneous, gonadal, and combined fat than either of their parental lines, but their brown adipose, liver, and heart weights were less than the average of MH and ML. A large degree of phenotypic variation was generated in both F2 populations for all traits evaluated (Table 2).
HB population: All markers genotyped in the HB population and their chromosomal locations are listed in Table 3. In general, positions of markers determined from the HB population agreed with those found in the Mouse Genome Database. However, three markers (D1Mit234, D9Mit243, and D10Mit44) were unlinked to their respective chromosomes in the HB population and were omitted from further analyses.
Phase 1 and 2 analyses: Markers with preliminary evidence of QTL influencing heat loss on the basis of selective genotyping are indicated in Table 3. Nineteen markers representing 11 chromosomes were identified as having potential linkage with QTL (P < 0.1) and were genotyped in the complete population. Of these, markers on chromosomes 5, 6, and 9 failed to influence heat loss on the basis of analysis of variance (P > 0.05) and were not included in subsequent interval analyses (Table 3).
Male and female means adjusted for replicate and means and standard deviations adjusted for replicate and sex for pooled data are presented for the HB and LH F2 resource populations for heat loss (kcal/kg0.75/day), food intake (g food/kg0.75/day), percentage subcutaneous, gonadal and brown fat pads, percentage liver and heart, and body weights (grams) at 3, 6, and 10 wk
Interval analysis: The experiment-wise 5% LOD threshold value based on permutation analysis across eight chromosomes was 3.28, which was defined as a threshold for declaring significant evidence for linkage of QTL. This value was essentially identical for the three traits subjected to permutation analysis (heat loss, subcutaneous fat, and 10-wk weight). Suggestive evidence for QTL was defined as the chromosome-wise 5% LOD threshold value. Because of constraints on computational time, the highest threshold value among the three traits on a particular chromosome was used as the threshold level for all traits on that chromosome. Suggestive threshold values ranged from 2.05 (chromosome 11) to 2.39 (chromosome 3). There was little variation in threshold values across the three traits within a chromosome.
Microsatellite markers and their chromosomal positions (centimorgans, in Haldane units) in the HB population
Estimated locations and effects of significant and suggestive QTL for heat loss in the HB population
Locations of peak LOD scores and effects of QTL at these locations for all traits are presented in Tables 4, 5, and 6. Nine QTL influencing heat loss were identified including five (Hlq1, Hlq2, Hlq3, Hlq4, and Hlq5) that exceeded the significant linkage threshold level (Figure 1). Although two peaks are present on chromosome 3 (Figure 1), the confidence intervals for Hlq3 and Hlq4 overlapped, indicating they may represent a single QTL. The QTL that exceeded the significant threshold level each accounted for 3.1 to 4.7% of residual variance while those exceeding the suggestive level accounted for 2.0 to 2.7%. Together, these nine QTL explained 27.7% of residual variance for heat loss, after accounting for variation due to time period, sex, sire-dam, and conditioning markers. With the exception of the suggestive QTL region on chromosome 4, the effects of these QTL were primarily additive, ranging from 2.1 to 4.4 kcal/kg0.75/day. The MH allele resulted in increased heat loss for all QTL.
Estimated locations and effects of QTL for percentage subcutaneous, gonadal, subcutaneous + gonadal, and brown fat in the HB population
Estimated locations and effects of QTL for 3-, 6- and 10-wk weight and percentage liver and heart in the HB population
Four QTL influencing brown adipose tissue weight were identified (Table 5), and each of them were within confidence intervals identified for heat loss QTL (Figure 1). The brown adipose QTL accounted for 1.8 to 3.3% of the residual variance and had additive effects ranging from 0.012 to 0.024%. The MH allele resulted in increased brown adipose for Batq1, Batq2, and for the suggestive QTL on chromosome 11, but the BL allele caused increased brown adipose for the suggestive QTL located on chromosome 17.
Significant evidence was found for one QTL influencing gonadal and combined fat (Fatq1) on chromosome 1 (Figure 2), while suggestive evidence (Table 5) was found for QTL on chromosomes 1 and 4 (subcutaneous), 7 and 12 (all three fat traits), and 11 (gonadal and combined). The MH allele resulted in increased fatness for QTL on chromosomes 1, 11, and 12, but decreased fatness for QTL on chromosomes 4 and 7. Fatq1 on chromosome 1 explained 5.4 and 5.9% of the residual variance of combined and gonadal fat, respectively, while the remaining QTL each accounted for 2.0 to 2.7%.
Body weight QTL (Figure 3) were identified on chromosomes 1 (3, 6, and 10 wk), 3 (10 wk), 11 (6 and 10 wk), and 17 (3 wk). Suggestive evidence was also found for additional QTL on these chromosomes, as well as on chromosomes 7 and 4 (Table 6). The QTL with the largest effect was on chromosome 1, where Wt3q1 accounted for 8% of the residual variance or 0.6 g of body weight at 3 wk. The remaining QTL explained from 1.9 to 5.0% of the residual variance (Table 5). Although most of these QTL demonstrated additive gene action with the MH allele causing increased body weight, the MH allele resulted in decreased body weight at Wt3q3 and Wt10q1, and significant dominance effects were identified for Wt3q3, Wt6q1, Wt10q2 and for the suggestive QTL influencing 3-wk weight on chromosome 7.
—Significant QTL influencing heat loss (HLOSS) and percentage brown fat (BAT) identified by interval analysis in the HB population are shown for chromosomes 1, 2, 3, and 7. Significant and suggestive threshold levels are shown as horizontal solid and dotted lines, respectively, for each chromosome. One-LOD confidence intervals are shown as lines below the x-axis for each QTL.
Seven QTL that influence liver and heart weights were found, each accounting for 2.1 to 5.2% of residual variance. Livq1 is located in a similar region of chromosome 7 as Hlq5 (Table 6). Both additive and dominance effects were observed, and the MH allele resulted in both increases and decreases in liver and heart depending on the QTL. Interval analysis for food intake failed to identify QTL surpassing either the significant or suggestive threshold levels on the eight chromosomes evaluated.
LH population: Locations of the 14 markers genotyped in the LH population are shown in Table 7. The markers genotyped and total length of chromosome 1 for the HB and LH populations were different (135 and 103 cM, respectively), making it difficult to identify the expected location of significant QTL from the HB population. However, the confidence interval for Hlq1 spanned ∼20 cM on the distal end of chromosome 1 in the HB population. Therefore, the most distal 20 cM of chromosome 1 in the LH population was considered as the region where Hlq1 would reside. Interval analysis in this region revealed a peak LOD score of 1.45 at 90 cM, which corresponds to P < 0.01 for a single position test. Following the guidelines proposed by Lander and Krugylak (1995), this is sufficient evidence to confirm the presence of Hlq1 in the LH population. However, the effect of Hlq1 was much smaller in LH than in HB, explaining only 1.2% of the residual variance with an additive effect of 2.01 kcal/kg0.75/day. Likewise, the confidence interval for the location of Wt6q1 in the HB population included the proximal end of chromosome 1 from 9 through 40 cM. The peak LOD score at the proximal end of chromosome 1 (36.9 cM) in the LH population was 3.44, corresponding to P < 0.0001. Thus, Wt6q1 was also confirmed in the LH population. Other QTL with significant evidence for linkage on chromosomes 1 (Fatq1, Batq1, Wt3q1, Wt3q2, Wt10q1, and Hrtq1) and 3 (Hlq3, Hlq4, Batq2, and Wt10q2) in HB were not confirmed in the LH population.
—Significant QTL influencing percentage subcutaneous (SUB), gonadal (GON), and subcutaneous + gonadal (FAT) fat pad weights identified by interval analysis in the HB population are shown for chromosome 1. Significant and suggestive threshold levels are shown as horizontal solid and dotted lines, respectively. One-LOD confidence intervals are shown as lines below the x-axis for each QTL.
Complete interval analyses of chromosome 1 revealed suggestive evidence (LOD > 2.13) for three additional QTL on chromosome 1 (Figure 4). These QTL influencing heat loss, subcutaneous fat, and heart weights accounted for 2.1 to 2.5% of residual variance (Table 8). The QTL influencing subcutaneous fat in the LH population was located in the same region of chromosome 1 where suggestive evidence for a QTL was found in the HB population. No QTL influencing any of the measured traits were found on chromosome 3 in the LH population.
DISCUSSION
The development of the HB resource population from a cross between MH and an inbred line enabled fully informative markers to be identified and used for genotyping, which increased the power to detect QTL and simplified the genotyping process. Crossing MH with ML provided a second population in which to confirm QTL and provided a model with which to study the relationship between QTL influencing heat loss and fat deposition. Loci identified in both resource populations may represent QTL where similar alleles producing low heat loss were contributed by the ML and BL lines. Alternatively, a QTL effect observed in both resource populations may result from a high heat loss QTL allele originating from the MH line in both resource populations. Evidence for such unique MH alleles may be provided by the asymmetric response to selection observed in the development of MH and ML (Nielsenet al. 1997a). Additional heat loss QTL unique to each resource population were also expected, and it was hypothesized that these QTL may contribute to the similar heat loss but different fatness observed in ML and BL. Loci influencing heat loss in HB but not LH may represent genes that influence heat loss independently of fat deposition, while QTL unique to LH may have pleiotropic effects on heat loss and fatness. A similar model has been proposed by Rice et al. (1996) to describe the shared genetic regulation of resting metabolic rate, fat free mass, and fat mass in humans.
Evidence for QTL influencing heat loss was found on seven of the eight chromosomes evaluated by interval analysis. Of the five QTL exceeding the significance threshold level established by permutation testing, two (Hlq1 and Hlq4) also exceeded the significance threshold (LOD > 4.3) suggested by Lander and Kruglyak (1995). The presence of Hlq1 but not Hlq4 was confirmed in the LH population. Confirmation of Hlq1 may indicate the presence of similar alleles responsible for low heat loss in both ML and BL, with a larger effect on heat loss resulting from the BL allele. The lack of confirmation of Hlq4 may indicate that the allele responsible for the observed variation in heat loss originated from BL and that alleles at this locus did not differ between ML and MH. Alternatively, different effects observed at Hlq1 and Hlq4 in the two resource populations may result from the interaction of these QTL with different genetic backgrounds.
Suggestive evidence was found for QTL influencing subcutaneous fat and heat loss proximal to Hlq1 in the LH population. Because these regions were linked and the presence of the ML allele resulted in decreased heat loss and increased fatness, these regions may contribute to the negative correlation between heat loss and subcutaneous fat found in the LH population (data not shown). The region of chromosome 1 influencing subcutaneous fat in the LH population corresponds to the region containing Fatq1 in the HB population, which also had a suggestive effect on subcutaneous fat. Thus, even though the effect of Fatq1 was not confirmed in the LH population, suggestive evidence of a QTL influencing subcutaneous fat was found in both resource populations in a similar chromosomal region. In the HB population, the MH allele resulted in increased fatness with greater effects observed for gonadal and combined fat compared to subcutaneous fat. In the LH population, the ML allele did not cause additional increases in gonadal or combined fat, but did have a suggestive effect of increased subcutaneous fat. Thus, this region may represent a locus responsible for differences in fat regulation between BL and the selection lines. The suggestive effect on subcutaneous fat observed in LH may be due to different alleles contributed by MH and ML or it may be caused by pleiotropic effects of heat loss QTL linked to a QTL influencing fatness.
Previous studies have identified QTL influencing adiposity using several different types of resource populations (see Pomp 1997). One QTL has been reported on chromosome 1 (Obq2; Taylor and Phillips 1996), but it appears to be distal to Fatq1. Several QTL influencing adiposity have been reported in other regions (see Pomp 1997). Regions containing Dob1 on chromosome 4 (Westet al. 1995), Dob4 (Westet al. 1995) and Obq1 (Taylor and Phillips 1996) on chromosome 7, and Mob3 (Wardenet al. 1995) on chromosome 12 correspond to regions with suggestive evidence for QTL influencing fatness in the HB population.
—Significant QTL influencing body weight measured at 3 (WT3), 6 (WT6), and 10 (WT10) wk identified by interval analysis in the HB population are shown for chromosomes 1, 3, 11, and 17. Significant and suggestive threshold levels are shown as horizontal solid and dotted lines, respectively, for each chromosome. One-LOD confidence intervals are shown as lines below the x-axis for each QTL.
Microsatellite markers genotyped in the LH resource population, chromosomal positions estimated from the LH population (centimorgans, in Haldane units), and the number of alleles observed at each marker are presented
An interesting result of this study was the identification of two significant and two suggestive QTL influencing percentage weight of brown adipose tissue. Each of these regions was closely linked to regions containing QTL for heat loss, suggesting a potential pleiotropic effect of these loci. Although the MH allele was associated with increased brown adipose for all QTL except chromosome 17, the effect of brown adipose differences on heat loss and energy expenditure is unclear. Increased brown adipose weight may indicate a proliferation of tissue to facilitate greater heat loss and energy expenditure. However, increased weight of brown adipose depots due to accumulation of lipid stores resulting from reduced brown adipose tissue activity has also been observed (Enerbacket al. 1997; Thomas and Palmiter 1997). Increases observed in ML relative to MH support the latter hypothesis, but the presence of QTL causing both increased heat loss and increased brown adipose supports the former. Further investigation of brown adipose composition and activity is needed to understand the impact of these QTL on the regulation of energy balance.
—Suggestive QTL influencing heat loss (HLOSS), percentage subcutaneous fat (SUB) and heart (HRT), and body weight measured at 6 wk (WT6) identified by interval analysis in the LH population are shown for chromosome 1. The suggestive threshold level is shown as a horizontal dotted line.
Estimated locations and effects of QTL influencing heat loss, percentage subcutaneous fat and heart, and 6-wk body weight on chromosome 1 in the LH population
The chromosomal regions containing QTL identified in this study are relatively large and contain many known and unknown genes. Although the specific genes responsible for these QTL effects cannot yet be identified, the presence of intriguing candidate genes within these QTL regions deserves mention. Genes encoding the β-subunit of thyroid stimulating hormone (Tshb) and the neuropeptide Y receptor Y2 (Npy2r) are located in the region of chromosome 3 containing Hlq4 and Batq2 (Nayloret al. 1986; Nakamuraet al. 1996). Both of these genes are involved in the regulation of several metabolic processes and have been implicated in the specific regulation of brown adipose activity (Himms-Hagen 1989; Cassard-Doulcieret al. 1994; see Woodset al. 1998). Genes encoding uncoupling proteins 2 and 3 are located on chromosome 7 within the region containing Hlq5 (Bosset al. 1997; Fleuryet al. 1997; Vidal-Puiget al. 1997). Uncoupling proteins facilitate the dissipation of energy as heat and have been actively investigated as candidate genes for obesity-related phenotypes (Bouchardet al. 1997).
Two heat loss QTL regions are homologous to regions in other species that harbor QTL for traits involved in energy balance. Norman et al. (1998) reported results of a genome scan for QTL influencing obesity and energy metabolism in Pima Indians. Evidence for a QTL influencing the ratio of carbohydrate oxidation to fat oxidation (24RQ) was found on human chromosome 1p22-p12, which is homologous to the region of mouse chromosome 3 containing Hlq4. Evidence for a QTL influencing percentage body fat was found on human chromosome 11 in the same study, but this region does not appear to be homologous to the mouse region harboring Hlq5. In pigs, Andersson et al. (1994) identified a QTL for fatness on porcine chromosome 4 in a region with homology to Hlq1.
In summary, several QTL influencing heat loss and other components of energy balance were identified. As more is learned about the genetic regulation of specific component characteristics that define energy balance, more factors explaining variation in this complex polygenic trait will be identified. Ultimately, it will be possible to study these individual factors and specific interactions among them to gain a more thorough understanding of the regulation of energy balance. This knowledge will be critical to the continued development of new methods to enable increased efficiency of livestock production and improved diagnosis and treatment of human obesity.
Acknowledgments
The authors are very grateful to Tong Zou, Louise Baskin, Lori Messer, Mark Allan, and Edward Cargill for assistance with data collection and to Jeryl Hauptman for expert care of the experimental animals. This manuscript is published as paper number 12336 in the Journal Series of the Agricultural Research Division, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE 68583-0908.
Footnotes
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Communicating editor: T. F. C. Mackay
- Received September 8, 1998.
- Accepted February 24, 1999.
- Copyright © 1999 by the Genetics Society of America
