Sequencing was used to investigate the origin of the D genome of the allopolyploid species Triticum aestivum and Aegilops cylindrica. A 247-bp region of the wheat D-genome Xwye838 locus, encoding ADP-glucopyrophosphorylase, and a 326-bp region of the wheat D-genome Gss locus, encoding granule-bound starch synthase, were sequenced in a total 564 lines of hexaploid wheat (T. aestivum, genome AABBDD) involving all its subspecies and 203 lines of Aegilops tauschii, the diploid source of the wheat D genome. In Ae. tauschii, two SNP variants were detected at the Xwye838 locus and 11 haplotypes at the Gss locus. Two haplotypes with contrasting frequencies were found at each locus in wheat. Both wheat Xwye838 variants, but only one of the Gss haplotypes seen in wheat, were found among the Ae. tauschii lines. The other wheat Gss haplotype was not found in either Ae. tauschii or 70 lines of tetraploid Ae. cylindrica (genomes CCDD), which is known to hybridize with wheat. It is concluded that both T. aestivum and Ae. cylindrica originated recurrently, with at least two genetically distinct progenitors contributing to the formation of the D genome in both species.

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POLYPLOIDY, the presence of more than one genome per cell, is a common speciation mechanism in the plant kingdom and a large proportion of plants are either recent or ancient polyploids (STEBBINS 1950; SOLTIS and SOLTIS 1993; LEITCH and BENNETT 1997; OTTO and WHITTON 2000; WENDEL 2000). Numerous studies have also demonstrated that polyploidy has been significant in the evolution of many vertebrates and other eukaryotes (WOLFE and SHIELDS 1997; PEBUSQUE et al. 1998). Polyploids are often classified into allopolyploids, resulting from interspecific hybridization of two fully differentiated genomes, or autopolyploids, arising from intraspecific chromosome doubling (STEBBINS 1947). Both modes of polyploidization result in duplication of genetic loci and, in allopolyploids, in the creation of homeologous loci contributed by different donor taxa at the time of polyploid formation. It has often been asked why polyploids are so common and successful (SOLTIS and SOLTIS 1999). LEITCH and BENNETT (1997) proposed that the success of polyploids is associated with their mode of formation and the extent of genetic divergence between the parents. Thus, polyploid species formed recurrently from genetically divergent parents capture genomic diversity from multiple progenitor populations, thereby increasing genetic diversity over that achieved via a single hybridization event (SOLTIS and SOLTIS 1993, 1999). Recurrent or multiple polyploidization events therefore may be an important source of novel genetic diversity that allows polyploids to adapt to new ecological niches or enhance their agricultural performance (LEVIN 1980; OSBORN et al 2003).

Allopolyploidy is prominent in plants, particularly in agriculturally important crops (SALAMINI et al. 2002). One of these, bread wheat (Triticum aestivum), originated by hybridization of cultivated allotetraploid emmer wheat (T. turgidum ssp. dicoccum, 2n = 4x = 28, genomes AABB) with diploid Aegilops tauschii (2n = 2x = 14, genome DD; KIHARA 1944; MCFADDEN and SEARS 1946). The latter has two subspecies: ssp. strangulata and ssp. tauschii (VAN SLAGERN 1994). For several isozymes, nearly fixed polymorphisms were detected between the two subspecies and, in each case, only the Ae. tauschii ssp. strangulata allele was found in wheat (NISHIKAWA 1973; JAASKA 1978, 1981; NISHIKAWA et al. 1980). Aegilops cylindrica originated by hybridization of Aegilops caudata (genome CC) with Ae. tauschii (KIHARA 1931) and is known to hybridize spontaneously with wheat (GANDILYAN and JAASKA 1980; SNYDER et al. 2000). The chromosomes of the D genome of Ae. cylindrica and those of the D genome of T. aestivum are homologous and pair at metaphase I in artificially produced T. aestivum x Ae. cylindrica hybrids (KIHARA 1944). Naturally formed hybrids between Ae. cylindrica and wheat occasionally produce seeds, presumably via spontaneous cross-pollination, which could facilitate gene flow between the D genomes of the two species (GANDILYAN and JAASKA 1980; SEEFELDT et al. 1998; GUADAGNUOLO et al. 2001).

Indirect measures of sequence polymorphism based on restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) of single-gene loci (DVORAK et al. 1988) and restriction site variation of low-copy DNA (TALBERT et al. 1998) have been used as evidence for the recurrent origin of wheat polyploids and the existence of gene flow from parental species to polyploids. TALBERT et al. (1998) concluded that hexaploid wheat was formed at least twice but further information on the exact origin of the D genome is still outstanding. Such information can be derived from direct analysis of DNA sequence polymorphism and from the identification of haplotypes representing several physically linked single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs; HEY 1998). Such approaches are now being used to study sequence divergence between sibling species (HILTON and GAUT 1998); to investigate genetic bottlenecks leading to domestication of crop plants, particularly maize (EYRE WALKER et al. 1998); and to quantify biological factors influencing the patterns of genetic diversity observed in various organisms (CUMMINGS and CLEGG 1998; FILATOV and CHARLESWORTH 1999; LIN et al. 2001).

The polyploid origin of wheat from three ancestral genomes, together with the associated triplication of genetic information, makes SNP and haplotype studies in polyploid species more challenging than comparable studies in diploids. Analysis of hexaploid wheat requires the development of genome-specific primers to ensure that only one of the three genomes (A, B, and D) is amplified to reveal the haplotypes present in the specific genome being studied. Studies focusing on the organization of sequence polymorphism into haplotypes in plants are in their infancy (WHITE and DOEBLEY 1999; TENAILLON et al. 2001; RAFALSKI 2002). However, since sequence variation reflects the shared population history of contiguous DNA segments, it provides a powerful approach to unravel the evolutionary history of crop plants. Such an approach, coupled with a comprehensive sampling strategy, is well suited to determine the number of independent parental lineages contributing to the formation of a polyploid species. We report here a study of D-genome-specific haplotype data at genes encoding ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase (Xwye838; AINSWORTH et al. 1995) and granule-bound starch synthase (Gss) to investigate and quantify the recurrent origin of T. aestivum and Ae. cylindrica on the basis of extensive sampling of hexaploid, tetraploid, and diploid wheat. We conclude that both T. aestivum and Ae. cylindrica originated recurrently with at least two genetically distinct progenitors contributing to the formation of the D genome in both species.

Plant material:

A total of 564 hexaploid wheat lines, 203 Ae. tauschii lines, and 70 lines of Ae. cylindrica were studied. The geographical origins of the lines are listed in the supplemental data at http://www.genetics.org/supplemental/.

DNA extraction:

Nuclear DNA of most of the wheat and Ae. tauschii lines and all Ae. cylindrica lines was isolated according to a procedure described by DVORAK et al. (1988). The remaining genomic DNA was isolated as follows. Leaf tissue was ground to a fine powder with a chilled mortar and pestle in the presence of glass beads and liquid nitrogen. In a 15-ml polypropylene conical tube, 3 ml of Plant DNAzol (Life Technologies) for every gram of fresh tissue was added and mixed by shaking. An equal volume of phenol-chloroform-isoamyl was added, vortexed briefly, and centrifuged for 7 min at 3000 x g. The upper phase was transferred to a new 15-ml conical polypropylene tube. DNA was precipitated with 0.7 vol cold isopropanol, removed with a Pasteur pipette hook, and placed in a clean Eppendorf tube with 1 ml 70% ethanol. The sample was centrifuged for 10 min at 3000 x g and the ethanol was decanted. The pellet was dried of all residual ethanol and resuspended in 300 µl TE with 2 µl RNAse (10 mg/ml).

PCR amplification:

The Xwye838 and Gss loci were amplified from the hexaploid variety Chinese Spring, cloned into Pgem-T, and transformed into DH10b electrocompetent (Life Technologies) cells. The sense-strand primer 5'-GTACGGGCTAGTGAAGTTCG-3' and antisense-strand primer 5'-GGGAGTTTGTTTGCTCGC-3' were designed directly from the GenBank sequence and used for the amplification of Xwye838 from genomic DNA. Gss was amplified by the Sun1 primers described by SHARIFLOU and SHARP (1999). A sample of 13–15 clones per gene was sequenced to determine nucleotide diversity at homeologous loci. Genome-specific primers were designed utilizing substitutions and indels and were tested for specificity to the three genomes of wheat using nullisomic/tetrasomic substitution lines. PCR amplifications were performed in a 25-µl volume containing 1x PE buffer, 1.5 mM MgCl₂, 0.2 mM of each dNTP, 0.2 M of both forward and reverse primers, 0.65 units AmpliTaq Gold, and 50 ng genomic DNA. PCR reactions with the following cycling conditions were performed in a Perkin-Elmer (Norwalk, CT) 9700 thermocycler: 96° for 10 min, 40 cycles of 96° for 1 min, 55° for 1 min, and 72° for 2 min, concluded with a final extension of 72° for 7 min. The resulting amplicons were separated on 1% agarose gel 1x TBE to determine quality and quantity of product purified with USB ExoSAP-It.

DNA sequencing:

Left primer 5'-TGGTTAGCACTGGTCTTACC and right primer 5'-CAACGGCATCGTCACGAGAGC were used to PCR amplify a portion of the Xwye838-1D locus and left primer 5'-CAATGTTTAGTCAGGGCAGC-3' and right primer 5'-AAGTGGAAACGAGATTAAGC-3' were used to PCR amplify a portion of the Gss locus specifically from the D genome. The addition of T3 (5'-AATTAACCCTCACTAAAGGG-3') and T7 (5'-GTAATACGACTCACTATAGGGC-3') tags to the forward and reverse genome-specific primers, respectively, for PCR amplification enabled direct sequencing from the PCR amplicons with T3 and T7 primers. ABI PRISM dye terminator cycle sequencing ready reaction kit with AmpliTaq FS DNA polymerase (PE Applied Biosystems, Foster City, CA) was used for the sequencing reactions. The sequences were analyzed on an ABI 377 automated sequencer (PE Applied Biosystems) and aligned with Sequencher (Gene Codes, Ann Arbor, MI).

Data analysis:

Two measures of nucleotide polymorphism were calculated (TAJIMA 1983): nucleotide diversity () based on the average number of pairwise comparisons in a sample (NEI 1987) and Watterson's estimator () based on the number of segregating sites (WATTERSON 1975). Evidence of past selection was investigated using Tajima's D test (TAJIMA 1989). Estimates of polymorphism and tests of selection were calculated with dnaSP version 3.53 (ROZAS and ROZAS 1999).

Nucleotide diversity at homeologous loci:

Xwye838 and Gss sequences amplified from hexaploid Chinese Spring and representing different wheat genomes were compared. For each gene, two clearly defined haplotypes that correspond to the A and D genomes were identified (see below). The high number of differences observed between the homeologous loci suggests that the missing haplotype representing the B genome (based on nullisomic/tetrasomic analysis) could be a result of a lack of primer specificity. In the case of Xwye838 a total of 50 substitutions were identified, with an average of 1 substitution every 19 bp. A similar frequency of substitution was observed in the Gss sequence (1/20 bp); however, the number of insertion/deletions (indels) differed between the two sequences (7 for Xwye838 and 10 for Gss). On average, we detected 1 substitution/20 bp and one indel/84 bp of sequence between homeologs. Estimates of divergence per synonymous nucleotide site, expressed as K_s values, are 0.0623 for Gss and 0.0971 for Xwye838 (no nonsynonymous substitutions were detected). This divergence between the A- and D-genome loci was exploited in the design of genome-specific primers at each locus. The D-genome specificity of the primers was verified with Chinese Spring nullisomic-tetrasomic lines.

Primers amplifying products specific for the D genome were subsequently used to analyze sequence diversity in a total of 564 T. aestivum lines that included free-threshing subspecies aestivum, compactum, and sphaerococcum and hulled subspecies macha, petropavlovskyi, spelta, tibetanum, vavilovii, and yunnanense together with 203 Ae. tauschii lines (see supplemental data at http://www.genetics.org/supplemental/).

Nucleotide diversity at the Xwye838 locus:

The amplified region of the D genome consisted of 114 bp of coding and 133 bp of noncoding sequence. For both T. aestivum and Ae. tauschii, no indels were detected and the only SNP observed within this region was a silent T-to-G transversion in the noncoding sequence. The T. aestivum accessions sampled are characterized by a vast preponderance of the T allele (frequency 0.984) with the G allele detected in 7 of 79 lines of bread wheat (ssp. aestivum) from Iran and in 1 of 13 lines of club wheat (ssp. compactum) from Afghanistan. In contrast, Ae. tauschii was characterized by a preponderance of the G allele (frequency 0.948) with similar frequencies in both the Ae. tauschii ssp. tauschii and ssp. strangulata genepools. The T allele was detected in two Ae. tauschii ssp. strangulata accessions and seven ssp. tauschii accessions. The presence of only two haplotypes in the Ae. tauschii germplasm was unexpected and demonstrated a surprisingly low level of diversity ( = 0.00086; Table 3).

Nucleotide diversity at the Gss locus:

To assay SNPs at Gss, the D-genome sequence of a 326-bp region consisting of 117 bp of coding, 51 bp of noncoding, and 158 bp of the 3' untranslated region was determined. The overall organization of sequence polymorphism in Gss is shown in Figure 1 . The polymorphism can be grouped into 12 distinct haplotypes, 11 of them present in Ae. tauschii (Table 1) . Seven indels were located in either the noncoding or 3' untranslated regions with an overall frequency of 1 indel/46 bp. The frequency of SNPs was 1 every 9 bp with 57% transitions and 35% transversions and the remaining 8% at positions where both transitions and transversions occurred. Of the 17 SNPs detected in the coding sequence, 7 resulted in five nonsynonymous substitutions (Figure 1). Two distinct haplotypes (1 and 6) were found among the 528 lines of T. aestivum. Haplotype 1 predominates and is found at a moderate frequency in Ae. tauschii and Ae. cylindrica (Table 1), whereas haplotype 6 was detected in only 7 of the 70 accessions of bread wheat sampled from Iran; this haplotype is very distinct from all the others, with 12 unique variants (Figure 2) . Although we sampled 198 Ae. tauschii accessions, we did not detect haplotype 6. On the basis of this sampling strategy the maximum population frequency of haplotype 6 that could occur in Ae. tauschii at a 95% confidence interval is 0.015.

View larger version (18K): In this window In a new window Download PPT slide   FIGURE 1.— Amplification of a 326-bp region of Gss with D-genome-specfic primers identified 12 haplotypes. Only the polymorphic consensus positions are indicated. (*) Substitutions that were nonsynonymous. (:) Missing bases at regions of insertion/deletion events.

 

View this table: In this window In a new window   TABLE 1 Gss haplotype frequencies in Ae. tauschii, T. aestivum, and Ae. cylindrica

 

View larger version (18K): In this window In a new window Download PPT slide   FIGURE 2.— A minimum-spanning tree was constructed from the compressed alignment. The polymorphisms that distinguish a given haplotype from another are located on the branches between them. Substitutions are indicated by rectangles: insertion/deletions by an open rectangle and homoplastic substitutions by a solid rectangle.

 
To determine whether haplotype 6 was contributed by Ae. cylindrica via T. aestivum x Ae. cylindrica hybridization, Gss haplotype variation was assessed in 70 lines of Ae. cylindrica (see supplemental data at http://www.genetics.org/supplemental/). Only haplotypes 1 and 10 were found, the latter being most frequent. The maximum population frequency for haplotype 6 to escape detection (P < 0.05) in a sample size of 70 accessions is 0.042.

Estimates of nucleotide polymorphism, and , are shown separately for the D genome of T. aestivum and Ae. tauschii (Table 2) . These estimates are based on 282 bp of sequence data at the Gss locus and reveal that Ae. tauschii contains a 30-fold higher level of nucleotide polymorphism than does the hexaploid wheat D genome. Information about the selection history at the Gss locus can be obtained by applying Tajima's D statistic. The estimates of D were –1.846 for T. aestivum (P < 0.05) and 1.953 for Ae. tauschii (0.1 > P > 0.05). These estimates are indicative of an excess of rare variants in T. aestivum that were created by a second independent hybridization event or introgression of D-genome material during polyploidization. The significant negative value for D in T. aestivum is, therefore, consistent with a recent origin (DVORAK et al. 1998a) of hexaploid wheat in which a variant arising by sexual hybridization was quickly fixed in the population.

View this table: In this window In a new window   TABLE 2 Estimates of nucleotide diversity and test statistics for selection at Gss and Xwye838 in hexaploid wheat species and diploid Ae. tauschii species

 

Genetic relationships between taxa based on sequence polymorphism:

A minimum distance-spanning tree (DIGBY and KEMPTON 1987) was constructed from the alignment of the 12 Gss haplotypes (Figure 2). These 12 haplotypes reveal four different groups of extant haplotypes in which the most recently derived haplotypes are also the most distinct and exist in the lowest frequency. This is illustrated by the cluster containing haplotypes 1–5 (Figure 2). Both proposed ancestral haplotypes, X and Y, are absent from our sample as well as several of the intermediate haplotypes that would correspond to each individual nucleotide substitution. Hexaploid wheat is represented by 2 of the 12 haplotypes (haplotypes 1 and 6) and these are highly divergent.

The primary purpose of this study was to develop D-genome-specific PCR primers and to use them to determine the number of distinct lineages present in the allopolyploids T. aestivum and Ae. cylindrica. The organization of sequence polymorphism and haplotype content at two homeologous loci involved in wheat starch biosynthesis was determined and used to amplify D-genome-specific sequences.

Wheat D-genome origins:

In the current study two sequence variants were encountered at each locus, suggesting that two genetically distinct progenitors have contributed to the D genome of T. aestivum accessions. For Xwye838, the SNP variant present in hexaploid wheat was also detected in Ae. tauschii. In contrast, only one of the two wheat Gss haplotypes was found in Ae. tauschii; wheat haplotype 6 was not detected in either Ae. tauschii or Ae. cylindrica, a weedy tetraploid goatgrass known to hybridize with wheat that contains an Ae. tauschii D genome (GANDILYAN and JAASKA 1980; SNYDER et al. 2000). Of the 11 Gss haplotypes found in Ae. tauschii, 2, haplotypes 1 and 10, were encountered among 70 lines of Ae. cylindrica collected across the distribution of this species (Table 1). The frequency of haplotype 10 was 0.957 in Ae. cylindrica and 0.186 in Ae. tauschii; however, this haplotype was absent from the 564 lines of T. aestivum sampled.

Haplotype 6 theoretically could have been contributed by other Aegilops polyploid species with a D genome: Ae. ventricosa, Ae. vavilovii, Ae. juvenalis, and Ae. crassa. Although we did not investigate these species, none of them is a likely candidate on the basis of geographic distribution. Haplotype 6 was found in just a few of the wheat lines studied from Iran. Of the four Aegilops species, only Ae. crassa grows in Iran but it is not abundant there; the principal area of its distribution is Turkey, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, and Turkmenistan (VAN SLAGERN 1994). Haplotype 6 differs at 16 nucleotide positions (13 SNPs and three insertions/deletions) from haplotype 1 and differs from the corresponding A- and D-genome sequences detected in Chinese Spring by 20 substitutions and seven indels and 11 substitutions and four indels, respectively. Since T. aestivum is no more than 8000 years old (NESBITT and SAMUEL 1996), haplotype 6 cannot have evolved from haplotype 1 after the formation of wheat. Although we are unable to make a comparison with the B genome, the likelihood of homeologous recombination generating haplotype 6 is low and it is more plausible that haplotype 6 was contributed to wheat by an Ae. tauschii population that was absent from our sample of 198 accessions.

At both loci, the polymorphism in wheat consisted of one common and one rare sequence. Both rare haplotypes were present in a limited number of wheat lines from Iran and a single accession from either Afghanistan or Turkey; only one accession harbored rare haplotypes for both Xwye838 and Gss. The nature of the polymorphism detected at both loci in T. aestivum suggests that this polymorphism originated relatively recently via a tetraploid wheat x Ae. tauschii hybridization event rather than via mutation. Gene flow from Ae. tauschii into T. aestivum via hexaploid wheat x Ae. tauschii hybrids is unlikely (DVORAK et al. 1998a,b). On the basis of previous RFLP analysis (DVORAK et al. 1998a,b), the haplotype data obtained here, and the highly self-pollinating, homozygous nature of the species being studied, one can reasonably conclude that at least two Ae. tauschii sources contributed germplasm to the D genome of T. aestivum. The present study also establishes that the genepool of the D genome in Ae. cylindrica must also be a product of multiple hybridizations involving Ae. tauschii since both haplotypes detected in Ae. cylindrica are present in Ae. tauschii. This recurrent pattern of polyploidization has also been demonstrated for Ae. triuncialis (2n = 4x, genomes UUCC) (WANG et al. 1997) and suggests that this mode of origin may be a widespread phenomenon in the Aegilops-Triticum alliance.

Domestication bottlenecks:

Domestication in most crop plants is associated with population bottlenecks and a reduction in genetic diversity. Small initial population sizes together with intense selection for agronomic traits are thought to have contributed to the narrow genetic base of most crop plants (TANKSLEY and MCCOUCH 1997). Comparisons of DNA sequence variation between and within species are now becoming available and are providing new insights into the extent of divergence between species and their ancestors, particularly in maize (HILTON and GAUT 1998; WHITE and DOEBLEY 1999; TENALLION et al. 2001; BUCKLER and THORNSBERRY 2002). On the basis of two apparently neutral genes, glb1 and ahd1, maize contains between 60 and 83% of the sequence diversity detected in progenitor species (HILTON and GAUT 1998). Similarly domesticated pearl millet contains 67% of the sequence diversity found in its wild progenitors (GAUT and CLEGG 1993). TIFFIN and GAUT (2001) compared sequence diversity at four nuclear loci from autotetraploid Zea perennis and the closely related diploid Z. diploperennis. No strong evidence for greater diversity in the tetraploid was obtained. On the basis of our Gss locus sequences, genetic diversity of the D genome of hexaploid wheat is, however, greatly reduced compared to that of Ae. tauschii. The nucleotide sequence diversity () was 30-fold higher in Ae. tauschii than in the T. aestivum D genome, and Tajima's D suggests a departure from the equilibrium neutral model at this locus, with an excess of rare sequence variants in hexaploid wheat species. This is compatible with a genetic bottleneck created by recent polyploidization. In contrast, the high diversity and positive value of D (Table 2) obtained for the diploid Ae. tauschii indicates an excess of intermediate frequency alleles, suggesting population subdivision in this species. This is compatible with the possibility (above) that the Gss haplotype 6 may be present in some Ae. tauschii populations that were not sampled.

To our knowledge, this study represents the most extensive sequence-based haplotype analysis conducted to date for any member of the Triticeae. The only other published study of nucleotide diversity at homeologous loci is from allotetraploid Gossypium (SMALL et al. 1999), which identified low levels of diversity, reflecting a history of severe bottlenecks associated with speciation and recent domestication. The availability and exploitation of genome-specific amplicons together with sequence analysis will provide further impetus to investigate the evolutionary dynamics of speciation (BRUMFIELD et al. 2003) and the mode of polyploid formation in plants such as wheat (BLAKE et al. 1999). For example, the methods outlined here for the D genome can be extended and used to investigate the structure of genetic variation in the wheat genome, particularly in relation to the number of genetically divergent lineages involved in the formation of AABB tetraploid wheat.

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